‘General Naval Tactics: Theory and Practice’

Review by Bill Doughty

Warfighting occurs in a multidimensional, multi-domain universe –– a matrix of possibilities, challenges, and surprises, more art than science. Success in the maritime battle space depends on balancing three components of “the art of war at sea.”

“Naval tactics is one of three components of that art; the other two are naval/maritime strategy and operational art.” The components are interdependent and reliant –– most importantly –– on the human factor. That’s the revelation in Milan Vego’s “General Naval Tactics: Theory and Practice” (Naval Institute Press, 2020), an indispensable book for any commander or naval officer whose goal is to be a senior leader of leaders.

This book presents a nuts and bolts discussion of objectives, methods, and elements of tactics as well as design, leadership, targets, and other vital considerations.

But throughout the discussion, Vego emphasizes the importance of incorporating theory and an understanding of people together with hardware and tactics. “Experience shows that a naval officer is far better prepared to apply tactical doctrine and to use it creatively.” That means having an appreciation of psychology, philosophy, history, and epistemology. “The most common error is an over emphasis on the importance of matériel in naval warfare,” Vego writes, adding that over-reliance on untested technology and mere pockets of information can be dangerous, too.

Chief of Naval Operations, Adm. Mike Gilday, right, speaks to Sailors after the Cyber Foundry ribbon cutting Feb. 18, 2020. The Cyber Foundry is a development site for some of the U.S. Navy’s cyber-warfare capabilities by combining a modern physical environment, trained and experienced personnel, industry-leading processes and updated technology resources to enable the rapid development of offensive cyber capabilities. (Mass Communication Specialist 2nd Class William Sykes)

Information itself can a weapon. This month, in fact, we learned of cyber attacks reportedly by Russia against the United States. Vego outlines how tactical information warfare is conducted in the cyber warfighting domain and how electronic warfare, psychological operations and operational security are part of tactical protection in information warfare.

“One of the key requirements for effective tactical IW is timely, accurate, and relevant intelligence. Among other things, intelligence support of IW analyzes the enemy C2 [command and control] process and determines enemy IW capabilities. Intelligence supports IW through the collection, evaluation, analysis, and integration of all available information concerning the enemy’s capabilities. Capabilities to collect, evaluate, analyze, and transmit intelligence information have increased exponentially with the development of surveillance sensors, computers, and communications. The overall effectiveness of intelligence support is heavily dependent on all-source, accurate, timely, and relevant intelligence.”

Leaders must also understand the limitations of machines of war and test new technologies under realistic battlefield conditions. Tactical wargaming is indispensable training, according to Vego. An important part of the decision-making matrix is logistics and other forms of command support, including maintenance, defense, and security, among other concerns for any planner or commander. Vego defines and describes various kinds of replenishment.

He presents pros and cons of centralized and decentralized command structures and explains the importance of good communication in C2 and the chain of command. “C2 is not a system or command structure, as often erroneously believed, but the process of planning, preparing, directing, and controlling ones forces in both peacetime and in combat.”

Here again, in senior commanders’ choice of command structures, is the importance of the human factor and finding balance in risk awareness not avoidance.

“Risk avoidance results in over-centralization of C2 and undue interference of the higher commanders in the authority and responsibility of their subordinate commanders. The higher commanders issue overly detailed orders to subordinates to ensure that no mistakes are made. Subordinate commanders quickly realize the dangers of acting on their own initiative. The result is lack of initiative and waiting on orders instead of making quick and independent decisions in the case of a sudden change in the situation.”

Vego presents dozens of examples from history, including surprising ones such as the Battle of the Saintes (1782), Battle of Lissa (1886), and Turko-Greek War (1897).

Crew members aboard USS White Plains (CVE-66) observe Imperial Japanese Navy attack other ships of carrier division 25 in the Battle off Samar, Oct. 25, 1944.

Most of his examples naturally come from the War in the Pacific (1941-1945) and include presentations of strategy, tactics, and operations during the battles of Leyte Gulf, Midway, Savo Island, and Samar, among others, where bold decisions were made by strong leaders.

Good leaders with high intelligence, humility and ethics Vego cites include Adm. Chester Nimitz, Adm. Raymond Spruance, and Royal Navy Admiral of the Fleet Andrew Cunningham (1883-1963), pictured at right. They were “trustworthy and trusting” with strong work ethics and wisdom, able to make good and righteous decisions in wartime.

“Decision-making is more art than science. Sound decision-making requires that a naval tactical commander possesses accurate, relevant, and timely information on all aspects of the tactical, and sometimes even some elements of the operational, situation. As time-space relationships continue to compress and the volume of information expands exponentially, making a sound decision will become progressively more difficult. The naval tactical commander’s ability to ‘see’ the battlefield will be greatly improved, but so will the enemy’s ability to frustrate friendly forces’ plans and actions. New information technologies will reduce, perhaps dramatically, uncertainties regarding the location, composition, movements, and these technologies will penetrate the thick veil surrounding the enemies intentions and the unquantifiable elements of the enemy’s situation any better than in the past.”

“Making sound decision requires quick thinking, focus on the essentials, logical reasoning, common sense, and good judgment.” Naval commanders need selfless courage, agility, creativity and foresight as well as the ability to communicate effectively. “Effective communications has an importance far beyond the mere exchange of information. It builds trust, cooperation, and mutual understanding.”

A five-country multinational fleet, during Operation Enduring Freedom in the Oman Sea. In five descending columns, from the top left to the bottom right: MM Maestrale (F 570); FS De Grasse (D 612), USS John C. Stennis (CVN 74); FS Charles De Gaulle (R 91), FS Surcouf (F 711); USS Port Royal (CG-73), HMS Ocean (L 12), USS John F. Kennedy (CV 67), HNLMS Van Amstel (F 831); and MM Durand de la Penne (D 560).

Vego writes, “Any military objective should be balanced (harmonized) with he corresponding factors of space, time, and force.”

Every naval officer can benefit from this book and its advice about balancing multidimensional, multi-domain, nonbinary leadership –– more wisdom than information, more art than science.

Read to Be Ready

CNO Adm. Jon Greenert reintroduced the Navy Professional Reading Program this week, with updated titles, access and focus tied to his sailing directions and navigation plan -- always being ready for warfighting and operating forward. “Admiral Greenert has directed the most significant changes to the Navy’s professional reading program since it was established in 2006,” said U.S. Naval War College professor John Jackson, the program manager.



Built around "warfighting first," "operate forward" and "be ready," titles are presented in essential, recommended and suggested lists for the Chief of Naval Operations Professional Reading Program. Greenert said, "Reading, discussing and understanding the ideas found in the CNO-PRP will not only improve our critical thinking skills, but will also help us become better sailors, citizens, and most importantly leaders."

The titles on the essential list include several reviewed on Navy Reads:

• "Wired for War"
• "1812: The Navy's War"
• "Seal of Honor"
• "Crisis of Islam"
• "Cyber War"

Books will be available at major commands and in e-reading versions via Navy Knowledge Online, Greenert said.  Look for more reviews in support of Navy's "read to be ready" professional reading program in the months ahead.

'Wired For War' Author Peter Singer to Kick Off Winter Lecture Series at ONR

By Geoff S. Fein, Office of Naval Research

Peter W. Singer, author of Wired For War

ARLINGTON, Va. (NNS) -- The Office of Naval Research (ONR) announced that Dr. Peter Warren Singer, author, senior fellow and director of the 21st Century Defense Initiative at the Brookings Institution, will speak on the science fiction and science reality of war in the 21st century, from 2 to 3:30 p.m. March 8 at ONR.

The event kicks off ONR's Directorate of Innovation Winter 2010-2011 Distinguished Lecture Series.

Singer, author of the 2009 best-seller "Wired for War: The Robotics Revolution and Conflict in the 21st Century," is considered one of the world's leading experts on changes in 21st-century warfare. He was named by the president to the Joint Forces Command's Transformation Advisory Group. Besides having written for a variety of publications and journals, Singer has also penned books on children at war and the privatization of war.

"Singer highlights the challenge ahead for the military: the technologists are advancing the state of the art at an ever-increasing pace, yet the doctrine and policies for use are lagging," said ONR's Director of Innovation Dr. Lawrence Schuette. "Lectures, such as Peter Singer's, are critical to the discussion, as it will bring a mix of technologists, operators and policy-makers together."

Questions about the event should be directed to Melody Cook at melody.cook.ctr@navy.mil or (703) 696-2924.

ARTificial Life Imitates ART

Review by Bill Doughty

Wired For War is P.W. Singer’s big wave-catching guidebook to the tsunami of change, subtitled as The Robotic Revolution and Conflict in the 21st Century. Part history, part current state of the art, and all philosophy, his book balances ancient storytelling, futuristic thinking and current ethics.

Are we on the verge of a Singularity, a revolution in military affairs (not to mention social/human reality) not seen since the discovery of gunpowder or invention of the steam engine?What will refinement of robots and nanotechnology mean for our military and society in decades ahead?

Nearly five centuries ago, an emperor of the Incan Empire, Atahuallpa, confronted Pizarro and Spanish Conquistadors in what is now Peru -- the first encounter with swords, armor and cavalry. It was, “a powerful example of just how shocking and powerful new weapons of war can be.”

Sir Winston Churchill, featured in our previous blog post, discussed the paradigm shift of new technology. He saw Edison’s and Tesla’s inventions applied to warfare and predicted the future widespread use of drones.

Singer leads Chapter 2 with this quote from Sir Winston: “The further backward you look, the further forward you can see.”

Churchill, who embraced the advent of aviation in warfare, would no doubt appreciate the evolution of asymmetrical warfare, UAVs and development of the Predator, Raven, PackBot, Ro-Bart, Wasp, REMUS, Zeus, Robo-Lobster, Cormorant, as well as other systems and machines explained by Singer in Wired For War.

Other people, however, find it hard to predict, let alone come to terms with, fundamental shifts in technology.

That’s not new.

Singer reminds us what the New York Times said 107 years ago this month, on Oct. 9, 1903, inaccurately predicting human flight:

“The flying machine which will really fly might be evolved by the combined and continuous efforts of mathematicians and mechanicians in from one million to ten million years.”

That same day the Wright Brothers, owners of a bicycle shop in Ohio, began assembling their first airplane -- just seven years before the beginning of the Centennial of Naval Aviation.

Singer shows how the “Dennymite” became the first unmanned plane in history immediately after the Dec. 7, 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor. Its inventor, Reginald Denny, provided work for Norma Jeane Dougherty -- the future Marilyn Monroe -- who was discovered at a factory where she worked spraying Denny’s drones with fire retardant.

In WWII, John F. Kennedy famously served in the Navy. His older brother, Joseph Jr., was a Navy pilot who served in Great Britain, part of a secret pilot-and-remote-control program called Operation Aphrodite. He was killed in 1944 while flying in support of a drone mission against Germany.

Singer tells us about the important role of Navy mathematician “Amazing” Grace Hopper, who was part of a team that developed COBOL so computers could communicate. USS Hopper is named in Rear Adm. Hopper’s honor.

Chief of Naval Operations (CNO) Adm. Gary Roughead visits with Sailors aboard the Arleigh Burke-class Destroyer USS Hopper (DDG 70) at Joint Base Pearl Harbor-Hickam on June 9, 2010. Roughead is at the base to participate in the 2010 Japan-U.S. Junior Officers Symposium. U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist 1st Class Tiffini Jones Vanderwyst.

From ancient mythology, Talos is a mechanical statue who served the Greek and Roman god of metalworks. It’s also the name used by an early Apple Computer operating system and the first computer-guided missiles on U.S. Navy Ships.

Modern “mythology” continues to inspire scientists.

Singer shows how much science fiction has predicted where we’ve come and where we’re going.

He gives a nod to former CNO, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff ADM Mike Mullen and the Navy’s Professional Reading Program, which includes SF titles by Robert Heinlein (Starship Troopers) and Orson Scott Card (Ender’s Game). [Wired For War has been included in the supplemental reading list and was recommended by Capt. John Jackson, “father” of NPRP, in his interview with Navy Reads.]

Singer credits Arthur C. Clarke with “one of the most militarily instructive stories on the dangers of being seduced by possibilities of new technology” -- Superiority.

He cites Isaac Asimov, Brian Aldiss, Joe Haldeman, William Gibson, H.G. Wells and Jules Verne and provides dozens of other sources as examples to explain how life imitates art and vice versa.

The unpredictability and uncertainty of war and unintended consequences of conflict are explored with insights from analyst Richard Clarke.

The same analyst who tried to warn against an invasion of Iraq warns about “a real digital divide” between haves and have-nots, educated and uneducated. Clarke recognizes, Singer says, that fear (including fear of change) is extremely powerful and can drive people toward violence, especially when religion is part of a volatile mix.

Nevertheless, change is not only here, it’s accelerating.

Singer gives an insightful quote from Gen. Eric Shinseki, about the constancy and inevitability of change: “If you dislike change, you’re going to dislike irrelevance even more.”

How will new forms of remote-control or robotic warfare affect the human psyche?

“The courage of a warrior ... is about victory over fear. It is not about the absence of fear,” Singer says, contending, “By removing warriors completely from risk and fear, unmanned systems create the first complete break in the ancient connection that defines warriors and their soldierly values.”

Can understanding and managing change -- like managing and controlling fear -- be part of human “wiring”?

Wired For War, with an obvious pipeline to the Pentagon, is packed with research -- but without jargon -- and backed with copious notes, explanations and examples from literature and popular culture.

Here’s just a partial list (in no particular order) of producers, authors, book titles, movies and games Singer shares:

Steven Spielberg, Clint Eastwood, James Cameron, Mel Gibson, Stephen King, Bertrand Russell, Tom Clancy, Mary Shelley, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Dan Brown, Michael Crichton, S.M. Stirling, Stephen E. Ambrose, Immanuel Kant, Charles Darwin, Ray Bradbury, Albert Einstein, George Orwell, Edgar Rice Burroughs, John Donne, Greg Bear, J. R. Rowling, Frank Herbert, Descartes, Jack London, Marvin Minsky, L. Sprague de Camp, Alien and Aliens, AI, Minority Report, Robocop, Metropolis, Terminator 2, Star Wars, Star Trek, Braveheart, Lost in Space, Matrix, Manchurian Candidate, Twilight Zone, Dr. Who, Battlestar Gallactica, Lord of the Rings, The Last Samurai, Metal Gear, Halo, Medal of Honor, Madden Football, Pixar and Japanese manga.